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. Indonesia possesses remarkable biodiversity, including numerous medicinal plant species traditionally employed as natural therapeutic agents. Among these, Cinnamomum iners is widely utilized and is known to contain diverse bioactive compounds with reported antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and free radical–scavenging activities. This research focuses onevaluate the antioxidant activity of ethanol, ethyl acetate, and n-hexane extracts of wild cinnamon leaves (Cinnamomum iners) using the ABTS and DPPH methods. Extraction was carried out using the maceration method. The antioxidant effectiveness was measured by analyzing the IC₅₀ values through free radical scavenging activity using the ABTS and DPPH methods with a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The antioxidant activity of Cinnamomum iners leaves assessed using the ABTS method revealed that the ethanol extract exhibited very strong activity with an IC50 value of 7.56 ppm, followed by the ethyl acetate extract with moderate activity (IC50 103.59 ppm), and the n-hexane extract with weak activity (IC50 188.64 ppm). In contrast, the DPPH assay showed that the ethanol extract demonstrated moderate antioxidant activity with an IC50 value of 168.03 ppm, the ethyl acetate extract exhibited weak activity (IC50 400.5 ppm), and the n-hexane extract displayed no antioxidant activity (IC50 2373.2 ppm).

The puring plant (Codiaeum variegatum), which has been known as an ornamental plant, apparently has significant therapeutic potential, supported by the presence of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, tannins, saponins and alkaloids. Various modern studies report the biological activity of croton leaves, including anti-cholesterol, anti-hyperglycemia, antibacterial effects, and their use in biosurfactant formulations. However, studies on how varying extract concentrations influence bioactivity parameters quantitatively are still limited, especially in the context of dose-response relationships involving many biological parameters in one series of research. Therefore, this research was conducted to evaluate eight bioactivity parameters, namely PSM, SSSP, DSSP, SL, RO, SM, PSL, and ANA at croton leaf extract concentrations of 1%, 2%, and 4%. This research uses a laboratory experimental approach by extracting croton leaves through a maceration method using ethanol, then formulated in three concentration levels. Each parameter was analyzed quantitatively to observe the pattern of changes in biological response to variations in the dose administered. The results showed that most of the PSM, SSSP, DSSP, SL, and PSL parameters showed an optimum response at a concentration of 2%, which indicates that there is a most effective dose point before a decrease in activity occurs at the highest concentration. In contrast, several parameters such as RO, SM, and ANA showed a more fluctuating response, even the ANA parameter gave the highest value at a concentration of 4%, indicating that certain activities require higher compound levels to be achieved. In general, the response pattern found was not linear, but instead formed an optimum curve typical of the bioactivity of plant extracts. These findings confirm that determining dosage is very important in the use of croton leaf extract, both for pharmacological purposes and for the formulation of natural ingredient-based products.

Thick leaf (Glochidion superbum) is a medicinal plant traditionally utilized by the community of East Panjang Island for the treatment of wounds, pain, and ulcers. This research was conducted to isolate the major compounds present in the ethyl acetate fraction of thick leaf and to assess its antioxidant activity using the DPPH method. The plant leaves were first cleaned, dried, and powdered, followed by maceration extraction using methanol, which resulted in an extract yield of 16.42%. The crude extract was fractionated by column chromatography using EtOAc and MeOH eluents with ratios of 9:1 (K1), 4:1 (K2), 1:4 (K3), and 1:9 (K4). UV–Vis spectrophotometric analysis showed an absorption peak at 288 nm, indicating the presence of phenolic compounds, identified as ferulic acid. Antioxidant testing using the DPPH method showed IC₅₀ values for fractions K1, K2, K3, and K4 of 12.981, 5.159, 9.658, and 10.971 µg/mL, respectively, with vitamin C as a positive control (3.563 µg/mL). Fraction K2 showed the strongest antioxidant activity. These results indicate that thick leaf contains ferulic acid with very strong antioxidant activity and has potential as a natural antioxidant source.

Extraction is a crucial stage in obtaining bioactive compounds from natural materials that have potential as medicinal, cosmetic, or nutraceutical ingredients. Among the various extraction methods available, maceration remains one of the most widely used techniques due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and ability to maintain the stability of active compounds. The maceration process involves soaking powdered plant material in a suitable solvent at room temperature for a certain period, accompanied by periodic stirring to facilitate the diffusion of active compounds into the solvent. This method is particularly effective for extracting polar and semi-polar compounds such as flavonoids, phenolics, and essential oils that are sensitive to heat. The review shows that the effectiveness of maceration is influenced by several key factors, including the type and concentration of solvent, particle size of the material, duration of soaking, and stirring frequency. The use of ethanol with higher concentrations generally yields greater extract recovery and higher levels of active compounds. In addition, maceration is considered environmentally friendly because it requires no excessive heating and can employ safe, natural solvents. Therefore, despite the development of advanced extraction technologies, maceration remains a relevant, practical, and efficient method for phytochemical extraction, especially in laboratory research and small-scale herbal industries.          

Pacing tawar is one of many plants used in alternative medicine. Pacing tawar is often used as an ingredient in herbal remedies for various ailments. Pacing leaves are effective as a remedy for itching, insect bites, and hair growth. This study aims to identify the presence and class of secondary metabolites in the ethanol extract of pacing tawar leaves to find bioactive compounds that have the potential to have pharmacological and therapeutic activities. Extraction was carried out by the maceration method using 96% ethanol solvent until a thick extract was obtained. Next, phytochemical screening was carried out to identify the content of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and steroids. The test results showed that the extract of pacing tawar leaves was positive for alkaloids, saponins, tannins, and steroids, and negative for flavonoids. The alkaloid test showed a dark pink color change, the saponin test produced a 2 cm high foam for 30 seconds, the tannin test produced a dark green color, and the steroid test showed a faint red ring. Based on these results, it can be concluded that freshwater pacing leaves contain various bioactive compounds that have the potential to be developed as natural medicinal ingredients.

The wild ginger leaves (Costus speciosus) is used by the community as a traditional medicine, with its rhizome being utilized as an antipyretic, diuretic and anti-inflammatory agent. This plant contains secondary metabolite compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, quinones, tannins and saponins. This research aims to identify saponin compounds and characterize the moisture content and ash content in the ethanol extract of the white costus (Costus speciosus) leaves. The white costus leaves sample was extracted using the maceration method with 96% ethanol as the solvent. The extraction yielded a rendemen value of 13.3%. Non-specific characterization tests included moisture content and ash content. The results for the moisture content of the white costus leaf simplicia were 3.3%, which meets the quality requirement of not more than 10% according to Regulation of the Food and Drug Supervisory Agency Number 32 of 2019. The ash content test result for the simplicia was 0.97%, which also meets the standard requirement of the Indonesian Herbal Pharmacopoeia, which is less than 10.7%. Phytochemical screening was conducted to identify the types of compounds contained in the extract. Based on the phytochemical screening results, the 96% ethanol extract of white costus leaves positively contains alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and steroids.

Bajakah tampala (Spatholobus littoralis Hassk.) is a medicinal plant that is traditionally used by the Dayak people to overcome various diseases, including indigestion such as diarrhea and dysentery. This plant is known to contain secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, and phenolics, which have the potential to have antibacterial activity. This study aims to evaluate the antibacterial activity of pulp extract of patchy bajakah with n-hexane solvent against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. The extract was obtained through the maceration method and tested using the well diffusion method at concentrations of 10%, 20%, and 30%. The results showed a relatively low yield of the extract (0.10–0.14%) with a reddish-orange color. The inhibition zones formed ranged from 4.28–5.55 mm with significant differences between concentrations (p = 0.000), but the antibacterial activity was relatively low. These findings indicate that the active compounds of the patch stalk are likely to be more polar or semi-polar, so they are less optimally extracted using the nonpolar solvent n-hexane. Therefore, further research with different solvent variations, particularly those that are polar, is urgently needed to uncover the greater antibacterial potential of these plants.

Tonic is a preparation thats can stqrengsthen the body and improve stamina. Curcuma zedoaria and Curcuma aeruginosa are known to have phytochemical compunds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannin, triterpenoids, curcuminoid and polyphenols that can function as stimulant and tonics. This studiy aimed to investigate tonic effects of ethanolic extracts of Curcuma zedoaria, ethanolic extract of Curcuma aeruginosa, and their combinations on male white mice (Mus musculus). Curcuma zedoaria rhizome and Curcuma aeruginosa rhizome were extracted using the maceration method for 3 days using 70% ethanol solvent which was then thickened in a waterbath. A total of 35 male mice were divided into 7 groups with different treatments, including negative control (aquadest), positive control (caffeine 100 mg/kgBB), ethanolic exctract of Curcuma zedoaria (600 mg/kgBB), ethanolic extract of Curcuma aeruginosa (600 mg/kgBB), and combination ethanolic extract of Curcuma zedoaria and Curcuma aeruginosa at dosage of 150:450 mg/kgBB, 300:300 mg/kgBB, and 450:150 mg/kgBB. Tonic effect were evaluated using natatory exhaustion and rotarod tests. The natatory exhaustion test is carried out by observing how long the mice swim, while the rotarod test is carried out by observing how long the mice stay on the rotarod apparatus. The data analyzed using ANOVA and Tukey’s test. The results of One Way Anova showed a there were significansts differensce in each groups (p<0,05) with combination of Curcuma zedoaria : Curcuma aeruginosa (150:450 mg/kgBB) yielding the best tonic effect. From the result of Tukey’s followsup test, it showed that the highers the dosae of Curcuma aeruginosa rhizome extracts the better the tonics effects giiven. This suggest that Curcuma aeruginosa has a dominant role in enhancing phsycal endurance in male white mice.

Memory is a vital biological system in the body that plays a role in storing, processing, and recalling information. Over time, due to aging or external factors, memory function may decline. One possible effort to maintain and improve cognitive performance is through the use of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) leaves contain flavonoids, which act as antioxidants and possess neuroprotective effects that may enhance cognitive function, including memory. This study aimed to determine the effect of avocado leaf extract on the memory of male mice and to identify the most effective dose in improving cognitive performance. The extract was obtained using the maceration method with 70% ethanol as the solvent. Memory activity was tested on male mice, which were divided into five groups: negative control, positive control, and three treatment groups given avocado leaf extract at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kgBW. The Y-Maze method was employed to assess memory through two parameters: latency time and error numbers. The results demonstrated that avocado leaf extract significantly improved memory in the test animals. Mice induced with 10% ethanol showed an increase in latency time and error numbers, while the groups treated with avocado leaf extract experienced reductions in both parameters. The most effective dose was 200 mg/kgBW, which produced a latency time difference of 19.5 seconds and an error number difference of 3.57. Therefore, avocado leaf extract shows potential as a natural agent to support and enhance cognitive function.

Extraction is a crucial process for obtaining active compounds from natural materials, such as medicinal plants, spices, and other biomass. The success of the extraction process is greatly influenced by the method used, as each method has its own mechanism, efficiency, and yield. This study compared seven commonly used extraction methods: maceration, percolation, infusion, soxhletation, reflux, Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE), and Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE). Based on data collected from various scientific journals, it was found that modern methods such as UAE and MAE are capable of producing higher yields than conventional methods. Furthermore, both methods are more efficient in terms of extraction time and solvent usage, making them more environmentally friendly and suitable for industrial-scale applications. However, conventional methods such as maceration and percolation still play an important role, especially in initial research or in laboratories with limited equipment. For example, maceration is easy to perform, does not require high energy, and is suitable for heat-sensitive materials. Other factors that influence extraction results include the type of solvent, temperature, time, and the characteristics of the natural material itself. Therefore, the choice of extraction method must be tailored to the research objectives, the type of compound to be extracted, and the availability of resources and equipment. Combining several methods can also be considered to improve the efficiency and quality of the extraction results. It should be emphasized that extraction yield is influenced not only by the method, but also by the type of material, solvent, temperature, time, and particle size. Therefore, the choice of extraction method must be tailored to the nature of the material, the type of target compound, as well as the objectives and availability of resources. In some cases, a combination of extraction methods can also be used to increase efficiency and obtain optimal results.

This study aims to analyze the differences between various extraction techniques and their relationship to the yield and biological activity of phytochemical compounds derived from natural materials. A systematic literature review was conducted by analyzing relevant and reliable scientific publications published within the last five years. The findings indicate that extraction methods such as maceration, soxhletation, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) demonstrate varying levels of effectiveness depending on the type of material, solvent polarity, extraction temperature, and duration of the process. Modern extraction methods, particularly sonication, MAE, and UAE, have been shown to produce higher yields with enhanced biological activity while offering greater efficiency in terms of reduced time and solvent consumption. On the other hand, conventional techniques such as maceration and soxhletation remain relevant, particularly for thermolabile compounds that are sensitive to high temperatures. The selection of an appropriate extraction method plays a crucial role in obtaining high-quality extracts that can serve as potential raw materials for phytopharmaceuticals, functional foods, dietary supplements, and other natural products. This review not only highlights the advantages and limitations of each technique but also emphasizes the importance of aligning method selection with specific research objectives and compound characteristics. Overall, this study provides a theoretical foundation for future experimental research and serves as an initial guideline for determining extraction strategies based on efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability.

This study aims to analyze the differences in various extraction techniques and their relationship to the yield and biological activity of phytochemical compounds from natural materials. The research was conducted through a systematic literature review from various reliable scientific sources over the last decade. The results indicate that extraction methods such as maceration, soxhlet extraction, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) have varying effectiveness. The effectiveness of these methods is highly dependent on the type of material, solvent used, and process parameters such as temperature, time, and solvent-to-material ratio. Modern extraction methods such as sonication, MAE, and UAE tend to produce higher yields and better biological activity. These modern methods have the advantage of being more time-efficient and requiring fewer solvents, thus allowing the extraction of active compounds more optimally. Additionally, technologies like microwave and ultrasonic waves help break down the cell walls of natural materials, enhancing the release of phytochemical compounds more effectively and rapidly. However, conventional methods such as maceration and soxhlet extraction remain relevant, especially for materials containing thermolabile compounds that may degrade at high temperatures. These methods are still preferred to maintain the stability of active compounds sensitive to thermal degradation. Choosing the appropriate extraction method is crucial in producing high-quality extracts that can potentially be used as raw materials for phytopharmaceuticals, supplements, or other natural products. This study provides a strong theoretical foundation for further experimental research and guidance in selecting extraction methods based on the required efficiency and effectiveness for industrial applications. Thus, this study contributes to the development of more efficient and high-quality natural products.

Pedada leaves (Sonneratia caseolaris), a type of mangrove plant that grows in tropical and subtropical coastal areas, have high ecological and pharmacological value. In addition to functioning as coastal protection from abrasion and seawater intrusion, this plant is also known to contain various secondary metabolite compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and alkaloids. These compounds have been widely reported to have important biological activities, one of which is as an antimicrobial agent. This study aims to identify the effectiveness of pedada leaf ethanol extract in inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms, especially bacteria that cause infections. The extraction process was carried out using 96% ethanol solvent through the maceration method, namely soaking the material in the solvent for a certain time to optimally obtain active compounds. The obtained extract was then tested for its antimicrobial activity using the disc diffusion method against test bacteria, both Gram-positive and Gram-negative. The inhibition zone formed around the disc was measured as an indicator of the antibacterial effectiveness of the extract. The results showed that pedada leaf extract was able to produce inhibition zones with varying diameters depending on the concentration used. The higher the extract concentration, the larger the diameter of the inhibition zone formed. This indicates a positive relationship between extract concentration and its antibacterial strength. This activity is believed to originate from the ability of compounds such as flavonoids and tannins to damage bacterial cell walls or disrupt microbial metabolic processes. This study provides initial evidence that pedada leaves have potential as an environmentally friendly and sustainable source of natural antibacterials. This potential is highly relevant in efforts to develop alternative antibacterial materials based on local plants, especially amidst increasing bacterial resistance to synthetic antibiotics.

This study aims to extract and purify secondary metabolite compounds from Coffea arabica leaves using various separation techniques, such as maceration, column chromatography, thin layer chromatography (KLT), and preparatory KLT, and followed by flavonoid content analysis using UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The process begins with drying the arabica coffee leaves, then extraction is carried out using 96% ethanol for three days. After that, the solvent is evaporated with a rotary evaporator at 60°C to obtain a viscous extract. The extracts were further separated using column chromatography with a mixed solvent of n-hexane: ethyl acetate (3:1), resulting in 12 fractions that showed color differences, which was an indication of the diversity of the compounds in the extract. Advanced identification was carried out with KLT using methanol solvents: chloroform (9:1) at UV wavelengths of 254 nm and 366 nm, indicating the presence of compounds with medium to high polarity. Furthermore, the isolated compounds were further separated using the preparative KLT (KLTP) method. To determine the flavonoid content, UV-Vis spectrophotometry was performed at a wavelength of 431 nm, using quercetin as standard. The results of the analysis showed that Arabica coffee leaf extract had a yield of 7.35% and a total flavonoid content of 19.0605 mgQE/g. These findings show that arabica coffee leaves are a source of flavonoid compounds that have the potential for the development of herbal or phytopharmaceutical products. The flavonoid content found may provide health benefits, particularly in increasing antioxidant activity, which can be used in the treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases. The results of this study also open up opportunities for the development of plant-based products, especially Arabica coffee, in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as an efficacious natural active ingredient.

White glutinous rice fermentation (tape ketan putih) is a traditional food product containing various microorganisms, including Gram-positive bacteria that may act as contaminants and reduce product quality. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) contains active compounds such as gingerol and shogaol, known for their antibacterial properties. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of ginger extract against microorganisms isolated from white fermented glutinous rice. Methods: Ginger extract was obtained by maceration using ethanol as a solvent and tested by disk diffusion method on Nutrient Agar against isolated microorganisms. Results: An inhibition zone was observed around the ginger extract disk, indicating moderate antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Conclusion: Ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract shows potential as a natural antibacterial agent against Gram-positive bacteria in tape ketan putih and may be developed as a natural preservative for fermented products.

This study evaluated the antibacterial activity of a combination of microbial compounds from apple cider vinegar (ACV) and keji beling leaf extract against skin and wound pathogenic bacteria, namely Staphylococcus epidermidis (Gram-positive) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative). ACV is produced through apple fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Acetobacter aceti, rich in acetic acid, probiotics, and proteolytic enzymes. Keji beling leaf extract is obtained through ethanol maceration and contains flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, and phytosterols—all of which have been shown to be antibacterial and antioxidant. The well diffusion method was used, with four treatments: negative control (DMSO), positive control (chloramphenicol 30µg), keji beling extract, and a combination of ACV + extract in various ratios. The results showed the largest inhibition zone in the 1:1 combination of ACV:extract, respectively 21.2±0.5mm (S. epidermidis) and 18.5±0.6mm (P. aeruginosa), much larger than the extract alone. This finding indicates significant synergism (p<0.05) between ACV and keji beling extract in stopping bacterial growth.

This study aims to determine the phytochemical content of Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae extract, also known as Hermitia illucens. The maceration method with 96% ethanol solvent was used for extraction, followed by evaporation using a rotation evaporator. Qualitative phytochemical tests were carried out to identify compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, polyphenols, steroids, and triterpenoids. The results showed that BSF maggot extract contained alkaloid and flavonoid compounds that were positively detected, while other compounds were not detected by the method used. The alkaloid and flavonoid content has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. These results indicate that BSF larvae can function as a source of natural biopharmaceutical active ingredients. However, the type of solvent used and the process conditions used affect the success of the extraction.

Malaria remains a significant public health issue in Indonesia, particularly in endemic areas such as Keerom Regency, Papua. Efforts to control this disease face challenges due to Plasmodium resistance to synthetic drugs, highlighting the need for safer and more effective alternative treatments. This study aims to identify the secondary metabolite content of several local plants traditionally used as antimalarial remedies. An experimental laboratory study was conducted using phytochemical screening methods. The plants examined included turmeric rhizome (Curcuma longa), meniran leaves (Phyllanthus niruri), papaya leaves (Carica papaya), sambiloto (Andrographis paniculata), and brotowali (Tinospora crispa). Extraction was carried out using the maceration method with 96% ethanol as the solvent. The results showed that all samples contained secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins, which are known for their antiplasmodial activity. Extract yields ranged from 18% to 24%, with turmeric rhizome showing the highest yield. These findings suggest that local plants from Keerom Regency hold potential as raw materials for the development of herbal antimalarial drugs. This study serves as a preliminary step for further in vitro and in vivo bioactivity testing.

Background: Chinese betel (Peperomia pellucida L.) is an herbal plant rich in bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and tannins that have the potential to be antioxidants, antimicrobials, and antidiabetics. However, the stability and absorption of its active compounds in the body is still a challenge. Microencapsulation technology and  a floating drug delivery sistem (FDDS) can improve the effectiveness and stability of herbal preparations. Objective: This study aims to formulate and evaluate floating microencapsulation preparations containing Chinese betel herb ethanol extract using modern drug delivery technology. Methods: Ethanol extracts were obtained by maceration method and formulated by ionic gelation technique using a combination of sodium alginate and chitosan at three concentration variations (0.25%, 0.5%, and 0.75%). The evaluation included morphological analysis with SEM, ex vivo buoyancy test on the stomach of Wistar rats, determination of moisture content, and physical stability test using the cycling test method. Results: Microencapsulation with a concentration of 0.75% showed the most compact and delicate morphology, the lowest moisture content (0.64%), and the best physical stability. All formulations are capable of floating, with the longest buoyancy time at a concentration of 0.25% for 8 hours. There were no significant physical changes after six cycles of extreme temperatures. Conclusion: Microencapsulation preparations of Chinese betel ethanol extract in a natural polymer-based floating system show good stability and potential as an innovative herbal formulation to extend retention time in the stomach.    

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis Linneo) is a plant from the Euphorbiaceae family known for its green star-shaped fruit and brown seeds. This plant has high nutritional value and significant antioxidant activity (Nuha and Sriwidodo 2022). This study aims to identify secondary metabolite compounds and determine the total phenolic content of the methanol extract of Plukenetia volubilis Linneo leaves. The samples were extracted using the maceration method, then phytochemical tests and total phenolic content analysis were carried out using the Folin-Ciocalteu method (Sari et al. 2021). The results of the phytochemical test showed that the methanol extract of sacha inchi leaves contained secondary metabolite compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and tannins. The total phenolic content obtained from the extract was 19.94%, which indicates the potential for high antioxidant activity. The results of this study indicate that sacha inchi leaves have the potential to be developed as a source of natural bioactive compounds that are beneficial to health.