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Abstract. The right to health is an integral part of human rights guaranteed by the Constitution and further reinforced by Law Number 17 of 2023 on Health, which places the state as the party responsible for ensuring the provision of safe, high-quality, and non-discriminatory health services for all citizens. However, in practice, the fulfillment of the right to health continues to face various challenges, particularly in the delivery of health services for participants of BPJS Kesehatan. This study aims to analyze the legal protection of the right to health in Indonesia and to examine the refusal of medical services to BPJS patients that resulted in death in Papua from a human rights perspective. The research employs a normative legal research method using statutory, conceptual, and case approaches. The findings indicate that although the national legal framework has clearly regulated the obligations of the state and health care facilities in providing emergency services, its implementation remains weak due to administrative barriers, unequal access to health services, and inconsistent law enforcement. The refusal of medical services to BPJS patients in Papua reflects a tension between hospitals’ administrative compliance and the professional obligation of medical personnel to save human lives. The implications of this study emphasize the need to strengthen supervision, ensure consistent law enforcement, and improve health service governance so that the right to health is truly protected as part of human dignity within the Indonesian rule of law. 

This article examines three major streams of Islamic political thought in Indonesia through a comparative analysis of the ideas of Mohammad Natsir, Abu Bakar Ba’asyir, and Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur). Mohammad Natsir embodies the constitutional–integralist perspective, which seeks to formalize Islam as the foundation of the state by utilizing democratic mechanisms and constitutional political processes. In contrast, Abu Bakar Ba’asyir reflects a radical–ideological orientation that firmly rejects democracy and advocates the full implementation of Islamic Sharia through extra-constitutional and non-parliamentary movements. Meanwhile, Abdurrahman Wahid represents a substantive–cultural approach, opposing the formal institutionalization of Islam within the state while promoting Islamic values as ethical guidance for building a tolerant and pluralistic nation. The contrasting viewpoints of these three figures highlight the diversity of Islamic political discourse in Indonesia and illustrate the evolving interaction between religion and state. Overall, this study demonstrates how Islamic thought continues to adapt and remain relevant within Indonesia’s multicultural and democratic context.

Modern conflict has evolved into the cyber domain as part of hybrid warfare, demanding a reinterpretation of the Sishankamrata (Total People's Defense and Security System) doctrine to encompass the digital realm. This study aims to analyze the integration of cyber defense into the Sishankamrata framework using a literature review and comparative analysis with the cyber defense strategies of the United States, Estonia, and Singapore. The results indicate that the implementation of Sishankamrata in the cyber domain faces challenges regarding inter-institutional synergy and unclear operational roles for the Reserve and Support Components. Based on the comparative analysis, Estonia's Cyber Defence Unit model and Singapore's Digital Defence pillar are identified as the most effective blueprints for Indonesia to mobilize civilian experts and enhance social resilience. This study recommends that the government formalize "Digital Defense" as an integral pillar of Sishankamrata, establish a Cyber Reserve Component consisting of expert civilian volunteers, and strengthen legal frameworks and public digital literacy as a form of state defense

The practice of surrogacy in Indonesia is growing despite the absence of clear legal regulations, creating uncertainty in the protection of surrogates, children, and those who use surrogacy services. Although several countries have regulations governing this practice, Indonesia still faces a legal vacuum that leaves many parties vulnerable to exploitation. This study aims to analyze aspects of legal protection, reproductive rights, children's interests, and women's dignity in the context of surrogacy in Indonesia, with the aim of formulating a more adaptive and equitable regulatory framework. The method used in this study is a normative juridical approach, with analysis using AMOS-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) of relevant legal documents and existing scientific literature. This research involves an analysis of existing regulations, cases related to surrogacy, and the opinions of legal experts and the public. The results show significant differences in legal protection between surrogates and children involved in surrogacy practices. Furthermore, there is uncertainty regarding the status of children born through surrogacy practices, which impacts their rights, particularly in terms of legal recognition and access to their human rights. This study also emphasizes that protecting women's reproductive rights and maintaining their dignity must be an integral part of surrogacy regulations. Clear and comprehensive regulations have been shown to improve protection for surrogates, children, and other related parties, as well as prevent potential exploitation. The implications of this study are the importance of establishing legislation specifically governing surrogacy practices in Indonesia, where such policies must focus on justice, child rights protection, and gender equality.

Corporations as legal entities have become an integral part of the national economic system. However, behind its contribution to economic growth, not a few corporations are involved in economic crimes such as corruption, tax evasion, money laundering, to monopoly and cartel practices. These corporate crimes have a broad and systemic impact, not only harming the state from a financial perspective, but also damaging a healthy economic order and creating social injustice. In the context of Indonesian criminal law, the implementation of accountability for corporations as perpetrators of criminal acts still faces various challenges, both in terms of regulations, technical law enforcement, and understanding of law enforcement officials. This research aims to evaluate the extent to which the implementation of criminal liability against corporations in cases of national economic crimes as well as identify relevant obstacles and solutions. The method used is a normative juridical approach by examining various laws and regulations, jurisprudence case studies, and related scientific literature. The results show that although the recognition of corporations as subjects of criminal law has been contained in several sectoral laws, its implementation is still partial and has not touched the root of the problem, especially in proving structural corporate guilt. Therefore, there is a need for regulatory reform, strengthening the capacity of law enforcement institutions, and integrating a multidisciplinary approach in dealing with corporate crime. By strengthening criminal accountability towards corporations, it is hoped that the Indonesian criminal law system will be able to provide a deterrent effect while maintaining national economic integrity.

Customary land is an integral part of the identity and survival of customary law communities, including in the Kampar region, Riau Province. However, along with increasing investment and development, there have been various forms of takeover of customary land rights that have triggered disputes between customary communities and third parties, such as private companies and the government. This study aims to analyze the mechanism for resolving disputes over the takeover of customary land rights in the Kampar region using customary law and national law approaches. The method used is a combination of normative and empirical juridical, data obtained through legal document studies, interviews with authorized local customary leaders. The results of the study show that customary communities in Kampar still rely on customary resolution mechanisms. Meanwhile, in resolving litigation, they often experience administrative and economic obstacles, while non-litigation channels such as multistakeholder mediation and administrative recognition by the local government are more effective if supported by policies that support them. In conclusion, synergy between customary law and national law is absolutely necessary to create fair protection for the rights of indigenous peoples, and it is hoped that there will be strengthening of customary institutions, acceleration of recognition of customary areas through regional regulations, and preparation of integrated mechanisms for resolving disputes based on local culture and national legal certainty.